Iraq is not a signatory of the 1996 World Trade Organization (WTO) Information Technology Agreement (ITA) nor the 2015 expansion (ITA II). In fact, the country is not a member of the WTO.

It is reported that a decision adopted in 2009 requires Iraqi government agencies to procure goods from State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) unless these entities are unable to meet established quality or quantity standards. Moreover, SOEs may secure tenders if their bids are within 10% of those submitted by competitors. SOEs are exempt from bid and performance bond requirements and benefit from regulatory provisions that favour them over private-sector firms. Foreign companies frequently need to partner with Iraqi firms to participate in tenders. The specific legal instrument underpinning these provisions could not be identified.

It is reported that the public procurement system lacks transparency and is characterised by corruption, with no legal remedies available to unsuccessful bidders.

Iraq is not a party to the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA). In fact, the country is not a member of the WTO.

It is reported that, pursuant to Iraqi legislation, foreign ownership in a business enterprise is restricted to a maximum of 49%; however, the specific statutory provision could not be located.

It is reported that representation by an authorised agent is mandatory when the patent applicant is not domiciled in Iraq.

Hungary has not adopted national legislation based on or influenced by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Commerce.

Hungary has not adopted national legislation based on or influenced by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Signatures.

According to Section 1 of the Domain Registration Policy, domains directly under the “.hu” public domain may be registered by:
(i) individuals who are citizens of the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe, the European Economic Area (EEA), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), or a neighbouring country of Hungary, or who hold an identification document, passport, or driving licence issued by any of these states;
(ii) individuals holding a residence permit in Hungary; or
(iii) legal entities established, registered, or in the process of registration and operating under the law within the EU, the Council of Europe, the EEA, the EFTA, or a neighbouring country of Hungary.
As stipulated in Section 1.2.2.1 of the Policy, legal entities applying for a domain must provide the Registrar with the chosen domain name, the contact details of the administrative contact person, the postal address, notification e-mail address, telephone number, tax number, and the name of the legal representative.

Under Section 15/C of Act CVIII of 2001 on Electronic Commerce, as amended by Act XXIV of 2020 transposing the revised Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD, Directive (EU) 2018/1808), video-sharing platform services are subject to a notification requirement. In practice, the authorities require the notification to include an official registration number, which is available only to companies with a local presence in Hungary. According to industry reports, this procedural hurdle also affects other digital services and e-commerce providers.

The Consumer Rights Directive 2011/83/EU provides an updated framework aimed at encouraging online sales. The Directive has been implemented by the Act CLV of 1997 on Consumer Protection (as amended in September 2019).

Hungary has not signed the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.

Although Art. 73 of Act CVIII of 2001 on Certain Issues of Electronic Commerce Services and Information Society Services provides that intermediary service providers are not required to monitor the content of the information they transmit, store, or provide access to, nor are they obliged to actively seek facts or circumstances indicating unlawful activity, subsequent EU legislation has introduced stricter obligations for certain categories of platforms.
In particular, Art. 17 of Directive 2019/790 on Copyright in the Digital Single Market (DSM Directive) mandates that providers of content-sharing services seek authorisation from rights holders and implement technical solutions to remove and prevent unauthorised uploads by their users (so-called upload filters), under penalty of losing their liability safe harbour. Further arrangements are envisaged for complaints and dispute resolution mechanisms. Such upload filters are reported to be a significant cost for online platforms. Graduated exemptions are expected to be put in place for new providers active in the EU for less than three years with a turnover under EUR 10 million and with fewer than five million users. The provision is subject to a challenge in the Court of Justice by Poland (C-401/19).
To implement Directive 2019/790, Hungary has adopted Act XXXVII of 2021, therefore making online content-sharing service providers partially liable for copyright violations on their platforms.