Kazakhstan is not a party to the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA). However, the country has been an observer of the WTO GPA since 2016.

Under Art. 17 of Law No. 567-II on Communications, licensing of activities in the communications sector is governed by the legislation on permits and notifications. Art. 20(2) of Law No. 202-V on Permits and Notifications provides that foreign applicants obtain permits on the same terms as Kazakhstani citizens and legal entities, unless otherwise provided by law or an international treaty. Item 12 of Appendix 1 requires a non-transferable Class 1 licence for long-distance and international telephone services, mobile satellite communications and cellular communications. Following Law No. 86-VIII, published in May 2024, this requirement also covers satellite communications using non-geostationary satellites. Therefore, the general licensing regime does not establish differentiated treatment based on nationality.
However, it is reported that telecommunications companies are required to purchase and install equipment related to the state’s System for Operational Investigative Measures (SORM) and to cover costs related to the database of International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) codes and to pay regular fees to the State Radio Frequency Service, which is the IMEI database operator. These obligations may deter new players from entering the market.

Under Art. 15(2) of Law No. 93-VIII on Mass Media, foreigners, foreign legal entities and stateless persons may not directly or indirectly own, use, dispose of or manage more than 20% of the shares or other equity interests in a legal entity that owns a mass media outlet in Kazakhstan or operates in this sector. Under Arts. 1(6) and 19(1), the restriction covers Internet publications, defined as Internet resources, including information agencies, registered with the competent authority. The predecessor Law No. 451-I imposed the same 20% limit under Art. 5(2), however, expressly exempted Internet resources intended for electronic commerce. This exemption was not retained in Law No. 93-VIII.

Kazakhstan has appended the World Trade Organization (WTO) Telecom Reference Paper to its schedule of commitments.

In 2016, Kazakhstan formally removed the general 49% foreign-equity cap for telecommunications companies, while retaining a 49% threshold for Kazakhtelecom and its possible successors. As of January 2025, the state controlled Kazakhtelecom through Samruk-Kazyna, its wholly state-owned sovereign wealth fund, which held 79.24% of the company’s issued ordinary shares.

According to Art. 23.6.7 of the Law on National Security, it shall be prohibited that foreigners, stateless persons, and foreign legal entities to directly and (or) indirectly own, use, dispose of and (or) manage cumulatively in excess of 49% of the voting shares, as well as stakes, units of a legal entity engaged in telecommunications as a long-distance and (or) international telecommunications operator, possessing land (cable, including fibre optic, radio relay) communication lines with no positive decision of the Government of Kazakhstan based on the opinion of the authorised body regulating the field of communications, agreed with the national security agencies. It is reported that, in practice, foreign investors must obtain a government waiver for the acquisition of more than 49% of shares in a company providing telecommunication services.

In accordance with subparagraph 4-1 of Art. 7 of Law No. 544, the Minister of National Economy of Kazakhstan ordered the approval of the Rules of Domestic Trade (Order No. 264). Arts. 105-1 and 106-1 of the Rules mandate e-commerce sellers to indicate their BIN (business identification number), address of business operations on the territory of Kazakhstan and mobile telephone number registered in Kazakhstan in order to operate in the country. Additional information on this requirement is found in Annex 3-10 of Order No. 4.

According to Art. 38 of the Patent law of the Republic of Kazakhstan, foreign individuals, foreign legal entities and stateless persons residing in the Republic of Kazakhstan enjoy the same rights as Kazakhstani citizens. However, under Article 36.5 of the Patent Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan, natural persons residing outside the Republic of Kazakhstan or foreign legal entities shall exercise their rights as patent applicants and patentees, as well as the rights of interested persons in the authorised body and its organisations, through local patent attorneys. Pursuant to Art. 1 of the Law, patent agents are citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan who, in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, have the right to represent natural and legal persons before the authorised body and expert agency.

Argentina has not adopted national legislation based on or influenced by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Signatures.

Consumer Protection Law No. 24240, together with numerous other legislative instruments, including the Digital Signature Law and Disposition No. 954/2025, establishes a comprehensive regulatory framework for consumer protection, which extends to transactions conducted in the online environment.

Argentina has not signed the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.

Argentina has not adopted national legislation based on or influenced by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Commerce.

Law 26.184 set out import prohibition on ordinary zinc-carbon and manganese alkaline primary cells and primary batteries, in cylindrical or prism form, with a mercury content exceeding 0.0005% by weight, a cadmium content exceeding 0.015% by weight and a lead content exceeding 0.2% by weight.

Under Argentina’s foreign-exchange regime, importers are subject to conditions for accessing the official foreign-exchange market to make payments for imported goods, including, in certain cases, prior approval from the Central Bank of Argentina (Banco Central de la República Argentina, BCRA). Communication “A” 8226, effective from 14 April 2025, eliminated the waiting period for payments for goods already registered with customs, allowing importers to access the official foreign-exchange market from the date of customs registration. However, payments made before customs registration generally remain subject to prior BCRA approval unless they fall within specified exceptions. Communication “A” 8226 also broadened those exceptions, including for certain payments made by Micro, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (MiPyMEs) and for capital goods.